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Peninsula

Peninsula

A peninsula (Latin, literally meaning almost island) is a geographical formation consisting of an extension of land from a larger body, surrounded by water on three sides. A peninsula can also be a headland, cape, promontory, bill, or spit.

Peninsulas of the World

Eurasia

Continental Europe

- Apsheron, Azerbaijan
- Brittany, France
- Butjadingen, Germany
- Cotentin Peninsula, France
- Crimea, Ukraine
- Gallipoli, Turkey
- Grenen, Denmark
- Hel Peninsula, Poland
- Italian Peninsula, Italy
- Jutland Peninsula, northern Germany and Denmark
- Peniche Peninsula, Portugal
- Piran, Slovenia
- Saint-Tropez, on the French Riviera
- Walcheren, Netherlands
- Zuid-Beveland, Netherlands

Balkan peninsula

- Chalkidiki, Greece
- Pilio, Greece
- Kassandra, Greece
- Mani Peninsula, Greece
- Mount Athos, Greece
- Peloponnesos, Greece
- Sithonia, Greece
- Zadar, Croatia
- Istria, Croatia
- Peljesac peninsula, Croatia

Iberian Peninsula

encompassing the whole of Spain and Portugal
- Cabo Espichel, Portugal
- Cabo de São Vicente, Portugal
- Tróia, Portugal
- Gibraltar (British Territory)

Scandinavian Peninsula

encompassing Sweden and Norway
- Svaerholthalvoya, Norway
- Varangerhalvoya, Norway

Indian subcontinent

- Mumbai city
- Kathiawar Peninsula, Gujarat

East Asia

- Malay Peninsula
- Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong (China)
- Leizhou Bandao, China
- Liaodong Bandao, China
- Shandong Bandao, China
- Ca Mau Peninsula, Vietnam

Korean Peninsula

The whole land mass encompassing South and North Korea is a Peninsula

Japan

Kyushu:
- Nishi-sonogi-hanto
- Kunisaki-hato Honshu:
- Shiriya-zaki
- Oshika-hanto
- Noto-hanto
- Oga-hanto
- Miura-hato
- Boso-hanto
- Inubo-zaki
- Izu-hanto

Philippines

- Bataan Peninsula
- Bondoc peninsula, Luzon
- Zamboanga, Mindanao
- San Ildefonso peninsula, Luzon

Indonesia

- Poluostrov Yamau
- Semenanjung Blambangan, Java,
- Semenanjung Minahassa, Sulawesi
- East Peninsula, Sulawesi
- South-east Peninsula, Sulawesi
- South Peninsula, Sulawesi

Madeira Islands

(Portuguese Territory)
- Ponta de São Lourenço

The Americas

United States of America

- Alaska Peninsula, Alaska
- Cape Cod, Massachusetts
- Cleveland peninsula, Alaska
- Delmarva Peninsula, encompassing parts of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia
- Door Peninsula, Wisconsin, in Lake Michigan
- Florida Peninsula, encompassing most of Florida state
- Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
- Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan, in Lake Superior
- Key Peninsula, Washington, in Puget Sound
- Leelanau Peninsula, Michigan, in Lake Michigan
- Lower Peninsula, Michigan
- Middle Peninsula, Virginia, on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay
- Mokapu, Hawaii
- Northern Neck, Virginia, on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay
- Old Mission Peninsula, Michigan, in Grand Traverse Bay
- Olympic Peninsula, Washington
- Pinellas Peninsula, Florida
- Sandy Hook, New Jersey
- San Francisco Peninsula, California
- Upper Peninsula, Michigan
- Virginia Peninsula, Virginia, on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay

Canada

Greenland

(Danish Territory)
- Alfred Wegeners Halvo
- Hayes Halvo
- Ingnerit
- Nuussuaq Halvo
- Svartenhuk Halvo

Mexico

- Baja California peninsula, Mexico, containing the state of Baja California and state of Baja California Sur
- Yucatán peninsula, partly separating the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea

Central America

- Península de Azuero, Panama

South America

- Paraguana, Venezuela
- Araya Peninsula, Venezuela
- Brunswick Peninsula, Chile
- Guajira Peninsula, Colombia
- Paracas Peninsula, Peru
- Paria Peninsula, Venezuela
- Taitao Peninsula, Chile
- Verde Peninsula, Argentina
- Valdes Peninsula, Argentina

Caribbean

- Barrio Obrero, Puerto Rico, despite its name, it is also a peninsula

Australia & Oceania

Australia

Australia
- Beecroft Peninsula, New South Wales
- Cape York Peninsula, Queensland
- Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory
- Eyre Peninsula, South Australia
- Fleurieu Peninsula, South Australia
- Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania
- Inskip Peninsula, Queensland
- Jervis Bay Territory
- Mornington Peninsula, Victoria
- Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania
- Wilsons Promontory, Victoria
- Yorke Peninsula, South Australia
- Younghusband Peninsula, South Australia

New Zealand

- Banks Peninsula, South Island
- Bluff Peninsula, South Island
- Bream Head, North Island
- Cape Brett, North Island
- Cape Campbell, South Island
- Cape Foulwind, South Island
- Cape Kidnappers, North Island
- Cape Turnagain, North Island
- Coromandel Peninsula, North Island
- Farewell Spit, South Island
- Kaikoura Peninsula, South Island
- Karikari Peninsula, North Island
- Mahia Peninsula, North Island
- Miramar Peninsula, North Island
- Mount Maunganui, North Island
- Mount Nicaragua, North Island
- North Auckland Peninsula, North Island
- Otago Peninsula, South Island
- Tiwai Point, South Island
- Whangaparaoa Peninsula, North Island

Papua New Guinea

- Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain
- Huon

Africa

- Bakassi, Cameroon but disputed with Nigeria
- Buri Peninsula, Eritrea
- Cabo Blanco, Mauritania/Western Sahara
- Cape of Good Hope, South Africa
- Cap-Vert, Senegal
- Ceuta, Spain
- Punta Durnford, Western Sahara
- Raas Xaafuun peninsula/Ras Hafun, Somalia

Antarctica

- Antarctic Peninsula
- Edward VII Peninsula
- Fletcher Peninsula
- Fowler Peninsula
- Martin Peninsula ko:반도 ja:半島 simple:Peninsula zh-min-nan:Poàn-tó

Latin (language)

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages, those being most notably Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. The Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek, remains the most widely-used alphabet in the world. It is said that 80 percent of scholarly English words are derived from Latin (in a large number of cases by way of French). Moreover, in the Western world, Latin was a lingua franca, the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, being eventually replaced by French in the 18th century and English in the late 19th. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the formal language of the Roman Catholic Church to this day, and thus the official national language of the Vatican. The Church used Latin as its primary liturgical language until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Latin is also still used (drawing heavily on Greek roots) to furnish the names used in the scientific classification of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with Greek, is known as Classics.

Main features

Latin is a synthetic inflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs. There are six noun cases: #nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative), #genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun), #dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for), #accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases), #ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from), #vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed). In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin. There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative. The following examples are of the first conjugation verb "laudare" ("to praise") in the indicative mood and the active voice:
Primary sequence tenses
# present (laudo, "I praise") # imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising") # future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")
Secondary sequence tenses
# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised") # pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised") # future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised") The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the primary sequence.
Latin and Romance
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese. The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive. Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative. In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.
Latin and English
See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition. English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English. During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word." Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.
Latin education
The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate). Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.
See also

About the Latin language

- Latin grammar
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- Latin declension
- Latin conjugation
- Latin alphabet
- List of Latin words with English derivatives
- Latin verbs with English derivatives
- Latin nouns with English derivatives
- ablative absolute
- Word order in Latin
About the Latin literary heritage

- Latin literature
- Romance languages
- Loeb Classical Library
- List of Latin phrases
- List of Latin proverbs
- Brocard
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
- List of Latin place names in Europe
- Carmen Possum
Other related topics

- Roman Empire
- Internationalism
References

- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237
External links

- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English. Category:Classical languages Category:Ancient languages Category:Fusional languages Category:Languages of Italy Category:Languages of Vatican City als:Latein zh-min-nan:Latin-gí ko:라틴어 ja:ラテン語 simple:Latin language th:ภาษาละติน

Geographical

)]] Geography is the study of the locational and spatial variation of both natural and human phenomena on Earth. The word derives from the Greek words Ge (γη) or Gaea (γεια), both meaning "Earth", and graphein (γραφειν) meaning "to describe" and "to write". Modern geography is a diverse discipline that draws influence from almost every other arena of knowledge. Geographers engage with other disciplines according to their particular research interests and, while subjects such as biology and economics have a powerful influence, there are geographers who use concepts taken from subjects such as sociology, psychology and sports science, among many others. Within the discipline there have been many long-running tensions among those seeking to define geography - whether as a 'science' or as a 'humanity', as a 'systematic' subject or 'regional' specialism and so forth - which at various times have come close to destroying geography as an academic discipline. Whilst profound differences do exist among geographers, the dual concepts of space and place provide a commonality of interest, which gives the subject a unique identity.

Structure of geography

William Hughes - who taught the geography of the Holy Lands to divinity students at King's College London - defined geography in an address in 1863: :"Mere place names are not geography. To know by heart a whole gazeteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world insofar as it treats of the latter) to compare, to generalise, to ascend from effects to causes and in doing so to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influence upon man. In a word, geography is a science, a thing not of mere names, but of argument and reason, of cause and effect." This was a specific rejection of geography as a merely descriptive discipline and also defined it as inclusive of both the physical world and the human. Within the discipline, however, there are many areas of specialism. Modern geographers tend to specialise in one of the broad branches (or sub-branches). However, most introductory geography syllabuses seek to ensure that geographers have at least working knowledge of the main focus of each branch of the subject.

Physical geography

Physical geography (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical layout of the Earth, its weather and global flora and fauna patterns. Many areas of physical geography make use of geology, particularly in the study of weathering and sediment movement. Physical Geography can be divided into the following broad categories:
- Geomorphology
- Hydrology
- Glaciology
- Biogeography
- Climatology
- Pedology (soil study)
- Coastal/Marine studies
- Geodesy
- Palaeogeography
- Environmental Geography and management
- Landscape ecology Exact lines between these different areas are often difficult to draw. Sometimes Oceanography is included as a branch within physical geography, but is now considered a separate subject in its own right. Related topics: Atmosphere - Archipelago - Continent - Desert - Island - Landform - Ocean - Sea - River - Lake - Ecology - Soil - Timeline of geography, paleontology - Geostatistics - Environmental science - Oceanography - Environmental studies

Human geography

Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see Physical geography) it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two. Human geography can be divided into broad categories, such as:
- Economic geography
- Development geography
- Population geography or Demography
-
- Urban geography
- Social geography
- Behavioral geography
- Cultural geography
- Political geography, including Geopolitics
-
- Historical geography
- Regional science
- Strategic geography
- Military geography
- Feminist geography
- Distinction between these fields of study have become increasingly blurred over time and the above list should not be considered definitive. Related topics: Countries of the world - Country - Nation - State - Personal union - Province - County - City - Municipality - Central place theory - Urban morphology

Socio-environmental geography

During the time of environmental determinism, geography was defined not as the study of spatial relationships, but as the study of how humans and the natural environment interact. Though environmental determinism has died out, there remains a strong tradition of geographers addressing the relationships between people and nature. There are two main subfields of socio-environmental geography:
- cultural and political ecology (CAPE) and
- risk-hazards research.

Cultural and political ecology

Cultural ecology grew out of the work of Carl Sauer in geography and a similar school of thought in anthropology. It examined how human societies adapt themselves to the natural environment. Sustainability science has been one important outgrowth of this tradition. Political ecology arose when some geographers used aspects of critical geography to look at relations of power and how they affect people's use of the environment. For example, an influential study by Michael Watts argued that famines in the Sahel are caused by the changes in the region's political and economic system as a result of colonialism and the spread of capitalism.

Risk-hazards research

Research on hazards began with the work of geographer Gilbert F. White, who sought to understand why people live in disaster-prone floodplains. Since then, the hazards field has expanded to become a multidisciplinary field examining both natural hazards (such as earthquakes) and technological hazards (such as nuclear reactor meltdowns). Geographers studying hazards are interested in both the dynamics of the hazard event and how people and societies deal with it.

Historical geography

This branch seeks to determine how cultural features of the multifarious societies across the planet evolved and came into being. Study of the landscape is one of many key foci in this field - much can be deduced about earlier societies from their impact on their local environment and surroundings. ; What's in a name? Historical geography and the Berkeley School "Historical Geography" can indeed refer to the reciprocal effects of geography and history on each other. But in the United States, it has a more specialized meaning: This is the name given by Carl Ortwin Sauer of the University of California, Berkeley to his program of reorganizing cultural geography (some say all geography) along regional lines, beginning in the first decades of the 20th Century. To Sauer, a landscape and the cultures in it could only be understood if all of its influences through history were taken into account: Physical, cultural, economic, political, environmental. Sauer stressed regional specialization as the only means of gaining expertise on regions of the world. Sauer's philosophy was the principal shaper of American geographic thought in the mid-20th century. Regional specialists remain in academic geography departments to this day. But many geographers feel that it harmed the discipline in the long run: Too much effort was spent on data collection and classification, and too little on analysis and explanation. Studies became more and more area specific as later geographers struggled to find places to make names for themselves. This probably led in turn to the 1950s crisis in Geography which nearly destroyed it as an academic discipline.

History of geography

:See main article: History of geography History of geography The Greeks are the first known culture to actively explore geography as a science and philosophy. Mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands added new techniques. During the Middle Ages, Arabs such as Idrisi, Ibn Batutta, and Ibn Khaldun maintained the Greek and Roman techniques and developed new ones. Following the journeys of Marco Polo, interest in geography spread throughout Europe. The great voyages of exploration in 16th and 17th centuries revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. This period is also known as Great Geographical Discoveries. By the 18th century, geography had become recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). Over the past two centuries the quantity of knowledge and the number of tools has exploded. There are strong links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology and demographics. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography.
Geographic techniques
As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key tool. Classical cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based geographic information systems (GIS).
- Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and behavioral psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of Geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field. mathematics
- Geographic Information Systems deals with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has so revolutionized the field of cartography that nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software.
- Geographic quantitative methods deal with numerical methods peculiar to (or at least most commonly found in) geography. In addition to spatial analyses, you are likely to find things like cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and non-parametric statistical tests in geographic studies.
- Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographic research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques also used in anthropology and sociology. Participant Observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data. In their study geographers use four interrelated approaches:
- Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally
- Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
- Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
- Analytical - Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
Related fields

Urban and regional planning
Urban planning and regional planning use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, etcetera. The planning of towns, cities and rural areas may be seen as applied geography although it also draws heavily upon the arts, the sciences and lessons of history. Some of the issues facing planning are considered briefly under the headings of rural exodus, urban exodus and Smart Growth.
Regional science
In the 1950s the regional science movement arose, led by Walter Isard to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the more qualitative tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional Science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as regional economics, resource management, location theory, urban and regional planning, transport and communication, human geography, population distribution, landscape ecology, and environmental quality.
Reference

See also

- List of geography topics
- Geographical terms
- List of countries
- Geography reference tables
- Map
- Geographical renaming
- Geographic magazines
- National Geographic Society (United States)
- National Geographic Bee (United States)
- Point of Beginning
- Royal Geographical Society (United Kingdom)
External links

- [http://www.confluence.org/ Confluence.org - A work in progress, involving travelling to every point on the globe where the lines of longitude and latitude intersect and taking a photograph in each direction.]
- [http://www.aag.org/ Association of American Geographers]
- [http://www.gisuser.com/ GISuser.com, information-rich portal about GIS]
- [http://www.populationdata.net/ PopulationData.net]
- [http://www.freemaps.de/ Free Maps Germany]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/high.htm Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.]
- [http://ericdigests.org/1992-5/geography.htm Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.]
- [http://ericdigests.org/1996-1/geography.htm The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.]
- [http://www.geo-guide.de Geo-Guide] extensive list of academic resources on geography and earth science
- [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia]
- [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic Online]
- [http://www.rgs.org Royal Geographical Society]
- [http://www.rcgs.org Royal Canadian Geographical Society]
- [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca Canadian Geographic]
- [http://hypergeo.free.fr Hypergeo : Geographical Encyclopedia]
- [http://www.rare-maps.com/links.cfm Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International] - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.
- [http://www.mapinfo.com/ MapInfo GIS Software]
- Category:School subjects als:Geografie ko:지리학 ms:Geografi ja:地理学 simple:Geography th:ภูมิศาสตร์

Landform

A landform comprises a geomorphological unit. Landforms are categorised by characteristics such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Landforms by name include berms, mounds, hills, cliffs, valleys, and so forth. Oceans and continents exemplify highest-order landforms. A number of factors, ranging from plate tectonics to erosion and deposition can generate and affect landforms. Biological factors can also influence landforms -- see for example the role of plants in the development of dune systems and salt marshes, and the work of corals and algae in the formation of coral reefs. coral reefs

List of landforms

- alas
- continent
- limestone pavement
- plain and plateau
- rock formations

Slope landforms

- cliff
- cuesta
- dale
- dell
- escarpment
- glen
- gully
- hill
- knoll
- mountain
- ridge
- rock shelter
- scarp
- terrace & terracettes
- vale
- valley
- watershed

Coastal and oceanic landforms

Coast
- arch
- barrier bar & barrier island
- bay & gulf
- beach & raised beach
- boondock
- cape
- cave
- cliff
- coast
- coral reef
- cove
- delta
- dune system
- estuary
- fjord
- headland
- island, islet, island arc, archipelago & atoll
- lagoon
- machair
- ocean
- Ocean ridge & oceanic trench
- peninsula
- ria
- salt marsh
- sea
- sound
- spit
- stack & stump
- tombolo
- wave cut platform

Fluvial landforms

- bar
- basin
- beach
- cave
- cliff
- gully
- island
- lake
- levee
- marsh
- meander
- oasis
- ox-bow lake
- pool
- riffle
- river
- spring
- stream
- stream terrace
- swamp
- valley and vale
- waterfall
- watershed

Mountain and glacial landforms

- arête
- cirque
- crevasse
- cwm
- dirt cone
- drumlin
- drumlin field
- esker
- fjord
- glacial valley
- glacial horn
- glacier
- hanging valley
- kame
- kame delta
- kettle
- moraine
- mountain & mountain range
- outwash fan and outwash plain
- pingo
- stream terrace
- valley

Volcanic landforms

- Caldera
- Cinder cone
- Geyser
- lava dome
- lava flow & lava plain
- Ocean ridge
- Oceanic trench
- Vent
- Volcanic island
- Volcano, shield volcano & composite volcano (or stratovolcano)
- ((Butte))

Erosion landforms

Landforms produced by erosion and weathering usually occur in coastal or fluvial environments, and many appear above under those headings. Some other erosion landforms that do not fall into the above categories include:
- canyon
- cave
- limestone pavement
- tea table
- Deposition landform -- landforms produced by deposition of load or sediment (usually coastal or fluvial).
- Eolian landform - landforms produced by wind weathering.

External links

- [http://www.deh.gov.au/settlements/industry/minerals/booklets/landform/ Landform Design] Category:Geomorphology ja:地形

Water

:This article focuses on water as it is experienced in everyday life. See water (molecule) for information on the chemical and physical properties of pure water (H₂O, hydrogen oxide). Water (from the Old English word wæter; c.f German "Wasser", from PIE
- wod-or, "water") is a tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless (it has a slight hint of blue) substance in its pure form that is essential to all known forms of life and is known also as the most universal solvent. Water is an abundant substance on Earth. It exists in many places and forms. It appears mostly in the oceans and polar ice caps, but also as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, and sea ice. On the planet, water is continuously moving through the cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Water fit for human consumption is called potable water. This natural resource is becoming more scarce in certain places as human population in those places increases, and its availability is a major social and economic concern.

Molecular properties

Forms of water

potable water] Water takes many different shapes on earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky, waves and icebergs in the sea, glaciers in the mountain, aquifers in the ground, to name but a few. Through evaporation, precipitation, and runoff, water is continuously flowing from one form to another, in what is called the water cycle. Because of the importance of precipitation to agriculture, and to mankind in general, different names are given to its various forms: while rain is common in most countries, other phenomena are quite surprising when seen for the first time. Hail, snow, fog or dew are examples. When appropriately lit, water drops in the air can refract sunlight to produce rainbows. Similarly, water runoffs have played major roles in human history as rivers and irrigation brought the water needed for agriculture. Rivers and seas offered opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoffs played a major part in shaping the environment providing river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers. Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. Because water can contain many different substances, it can taste or smell very differently. In fact, humans and other animals have developed their senses to be able to evaluate the drinkability of water: animals generally dislike the taste of salty sea water and the putrid swamps and favor the purer water of a mountain spring or aquifer.

Water in biology

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. Water carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allows replication. It is a good solvent and has a high surface tension, and thus allows organic compounds and living things to be transported in it. Fresh water has its greatest density at 4°C, then becoming less dense as it freezes or heats up from this point. As a stable, polar molecule prevalent in the atmosphere, it plays an important atmospheric role as an absorber of infrared radiation, crucial in the atmospheric greenhouse effect without of which, the average surface temperature would be −18° Celsius. Water also has an unusually high specific heat, which plays many roles in regulating global and regional climate, such as the Gulf Stream climate, allowing life to survive. Water is a very good solvent, chemically not unlike ammonia, and dissolves many types of substances, such as various salts and sugar, and facilitates their chemical interaction, which aids complex metabolisms. Some substances, however, do not mix well with water, including oils and other hydrophobic substances. Cell membranes, composed of lipids and proteins, take advantage of this property to carefully control interactions between their contents and external chemicals. This is facilitated somewhat by the surface tension of water. Water drops are stable due to the high surface tension of water caused by the strong intermolecular forces called cohesive forces. This can be seen when small quantities of water are put onto a nonsoluble surface such as polythene: the water stays together as drops. On extremely clean glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces. This property plays a key role in plant transpiration. A simple but environmentally important and unique property of water is that its common solid form, ice, floats on the liquid. This solid phase is less dense than liquid water, due to the geometry of the strong hydrogen bonds which are formed only at lower temperatures. For almost all other substances and for all other 11 uncommon phases of water ice except ice-XI, the solid form is more dense than the liquid form. Fresh water is most dense at 4°C, and will sink by convection as it cools to that temperature, and if it becomes colder it will rise instead. This reversal will cause deep water to remain warmer than shallower freezing water, so that ice in a body of water will form first at the surface and progress downward, while the majority of the water underneath will hold a constant 4°C. This effectively insulates a lake floor from the cold. While this behavior may seem obvious, even intuitive, it should be noted that almost all other chemicals are denser as solids than they are as liquids, and freeze from the bottom up. Life on earth has evolved with and adapted itself to the important features of water. The existence of abundant liquid, vapor and solid forms of water on Earth has been an important factor in the abundant colonization of Earth's various environments by life-forms adapted to those varying and often extreme conditions. Civilizations have historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, is situated between two major rivers. Large metropolises like London, Paris, New York, and Tokyo owe their success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore and Hong Kong, have flourished for precisely this reason. In places such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is scarcer, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.

Astronomical position of Earth and impact on its water

Mesopotamia The coexistence of the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of water on Earth is vital to the origin, evolution, and continued existence of life on Earth. However, if the Earth's location in the solar system were even marginally closer or further from the Sun (ie, a million miles or so), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist. Earth's mass allows gravity to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provides a greenhouse effect which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were less massive, a thinner atmosphere would cause temperature extremes preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars). According to the solar nebula model of the solar system's formation, Earth's mass may be largely due to its distance from the Sun. The distance between Earth and the Sun and the combination of solar radiation received and the greenhouse effect of the atmosphere ensures that its surface is neither too cold nor too hot for liquid water. If Earth were more distant, most water would be frozen. If Earth were nearer to the Sun, its higher surface temperature would limit the formation of ice caps, or cause water to exist only as vapor. In the former case, the low albedo of oceans would cause Earth to absorb more solar energy. In the second case, a runaway greenhouse effect and inhospitable conditions similar to Venus would result. It has been proposed that life itself may maintain the conditions that have allowed its continued existence. The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying solar flux, indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.

Human uses of water

Gaia hypothesis All known forms of life depend on water. Water is a vital part of many metabolic processes within the body. Significant quantities of water are used during the digestion of food. (Note however that some bacteria and plant seeds can enter a cryptobiotic state for an indefinite period when dehydrated, and come back to life when returned to a wet environment) About 72% of the fat free mass of the human body is made of water. To function properly the body requires between one and seven litres of water per day to avoid dehydration, the precise amount depending on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people. However, for those who do not have kidney problems, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) dangerous to drink too little. People do often drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication, which is frequently fatal. The "fact" that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to a scientific source. However, leading dieticians and nutritionists will tell you that this is the RDI (Recommended Daily Intake) of water. [http://ajpregu.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/283/5/R993]. The latest dietary reference intake report by the National Research Council recommended 2.7 liters of water total (including food sources) for women and 3.7 liters for men[http://www.iom.edu/report.asp?id=18495]. Water is lost from the body in urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath. Humans require water that does not contain too much salt or other impurities. Common impurities include chemicals and/or harmful bacteria, such as crypto sporidium. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for perceived taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.

Water as a precious resource

:See water resources for information about fresh water supplies. fresh water Because of the growth of world population and other factors, the availability of drinking water per capita is shrinking. The issue of water shortage can be solved through more production, better distribution and less waste of it. For this reason, water is a strategic resource for many countries. Many battles and wars, such as the Six-Day War in the Middle East, have been fought to gain access to it. Experts predict more trouble ahead because of the world's growing population, increasing contamination through pollution, and global warming. UNESCO's World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from its World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases related to the consumption of contaminated water or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds due to easily preventable water-related diseases. Some have predicted that clean water will become the "next oil", making Canada, with this resource in abundance, possibly the richest country in the world.

Regulating water distribution

Drinking water is often collected at springs or extracted from artificial borings in the ground, or wells. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources are the rainwater and river or lake water. This surface water, however, must be purified for human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant ocean or seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates. The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems or as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. Others argue that the market mechanism and free enterprise are best to manage this rare resource, and to finance the boring of wells or the construction of dams and reservoirs. Reducing waste, that is using drinking water only for human consumption, is another option. In some cities, such as Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources. Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the pollutor. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

The impact of water on human culture

Water is considered a purifier in most religions, including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto. For instance, baptism in Christian churches is done with water. In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the daily Salah can only be done after ablution (Wodoo), that is, washing parts of the body in clean water. In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area. Water is often believed to have spiritual powers. In Celtic mythology, Sulis is the local goddess of thermal springs; in Hinduism, the Ganga is also personified as a goddess. Alternatively, gods can be patrons of particular springs, river or lakes: for example in Greek and Roman mythology, Peneus was a river god, one of the three thousand Oceanids. The Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic stuff of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist. In the theory of the four bodily humours, water was associated with phlegm. Water was also one of the Five Elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal. A common misconception about water is that it is a powerful conductor of electricity. Any electrical properties observable in water are due to the ions of mineral salts and carbon dioxide dissolved in it. Water does self-ionize (two water molecules become one hydroxide anion and one hydronium cation), but only at a very slight, almost immeasurable level. Pure water can also be electrolized into oxygen and hydrogen gases but without any dissolved ions, this is a very slow process and thus very little current is conducted. Many bottled water companies exploit another common misconception, advertising both purity and taste, even though pure water is tasteless.